| Republic of Sri Lanka
| ||
|---|---|---|
| Anthem:? Sri Lanka Matha Mother Sri Lanka | ||
| Capital | Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte[1][2] 6?54?N 79?54?E? / ?6.9?N 79.9?E? / 6.9; 79.9 | |
| Largest city | Colombo | |
| Official language(s) | Sinhala, Tamil | |
| Demonym | Sri Lankan | |
| Government | Unitary republic Democratic Socialist Semi-presidential system | |
| ?-? | President | Mahinda Rajapaksa |
| ?-? | Prime Minister | D. M. Jayaratne |
| ?-? | Speaker of the House | Chamal Rajapaksa |
| ?-? | Chief Justice | Dr. Shirani Bandaranayake |
| Legislature | Parliament | |
| Independence | from the United Kingdom? | |
| ?-? | Dominion (Self rule) | 4 February 1948? |
| ?-? | Republic | 22 May 1972? |
| Area | ||
| ?-? | Total | 65,610?km2?(122nd) 25,332?sq?mi? |
| ?-? | Water?(%) | 4.4 |
| Population | ||
| ?-? | 2010?estimate | 20,860,000[3]?(56th) |
| ?-? | Mid 2010?census | 20,653,000[4]? |
| ?-? | Density | 308.5/km2?(44th) 798.9/sq?mi |
| GDP?(PPP) | 2011?estimate | |
| ?-? | Total | $116.541 billion[5]?(64th) |
| ?-? | Per capita | $5,673[5]?(111th) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2011?estimate | |
| ?-? | Total | $59.095 billion[5]?(68th) |
| ?-? | Per capita | $2,877[5]?(123rd) |
| Gini?(2010) | 36[6]?(medium)? | |
| HDI?(2011) |  0.691[7]?(medium)?(97th) | |
| Currency | Sri Lankan Rupee (LKR) | |
| Time zone | Sri Lanka Standard Time Zone (UTC+5:30) | |
| ?-? | Summer?(DST) | not observed?(UTC) |
| Date formats | dd/mm/yy(AD) | |
| Drives on the | left | |
| ISO?3166?code | LK | |
| Internet TLD | .lk, .????, .?????? | |
| Calling code | 94 | |
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (
i/?ri? ?l???k?/, /sri??l???k?/, or /sri??l??k?/;[8][9]Sinhala: ????? ?????, Tamil: ??????), is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent in South Asia. Known until 1972 as Ceylon (
?/s??l?n/, /se??l?n/, or /si??l?n/), Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the Maldives.
As a result of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia.[10] It was an important stop on the ancient Silk Road.[11] Sri Lanka has also been a center of the Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times, being the nation where the Buddhist teachings were first written down as well as the oldest continually Buddhist country.[12] Sri Lanka boasts a diverse range of cultures, languages and religions. The Sinhalese people form the majority of the population; Tamils, who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, form the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include Moors, Burghers, Kaffirs, Malays and the aboriginal Vedda people.[13]
Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system with its official seat of government in Sri Jayawardenapura-Kotte, the capital. The country is famous for the production and export of tea, coffee, gemstones, coconuts, rubber and cinnamon, the last of which is native to the country.[14] The natural beauty of Sri Lanka has led to the title The Pearl of the Indian Ocean.[15] The island is laden with lush tropical forests, white beaches and diverse landscapes with rich biodiversity. The country lays claim to a long and colorful history of over three thousand years, having one of the longest documented histories in the world.[16] Sri Lanka's rich culture can be attributed to the many different communities on the island.[17] The country is a founding member state of SAARC and a member of United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, G77 and Non-Aligned Movement. As of 2011, Sri Lanka was one of the fastest growing economies of the world.[18]
In ancient times, Sri Lanka was known by a variety of names: Known in India as Lanka or Sinhala, ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobane[19]?/t??pr?b?ni?/ and Arabs referred to it as Serendib (the origin of the word "serendipity").[20]Ceil?o was the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505,[21] which was transliterated into English as Ceylon.[22] As a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, and achieved independence under the name Dominion of Ceylon in 1948.
In Sinhala the country is known as ????? ???? ?r? la?k?, IPA:?[??i??la?ka?], and the island itself as ????? la?k?va, IPA:?[la??ka???]. In Tamil they are both ?????? ila?kai, IPA:?[i?la??ai]. The name derives from the Sanskrit ???? ???? ?r? (venerable) and lank? (island),[23] the name of the island in the ancient Indian epics Mahabharata and the Ramayana. In 1972, the official name of the country was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". In 1978 it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".[24] The name Ceylon is still in use in the names of a number of organisations; in 2011, the Sri Lankan government announced a plan to rename all of those for which it is responsible.[25]
Pre-historic Sri Lanka[link]
The pre-history of Sri Lanka dates back over 125,000 years Before Present (BP) and possibly even as early as 500,000 BP.[26] The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron ages. Among the Paleolithic (Homo Erectus) human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (named after the Chinese traveler monk Fa-Hsien), which dates back to 37,000 BP,[27]Batadombalena (28,500 BP)[28] and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. The remains of Balangoda Man, an anatomically modern human, found inside these caves,[29] suggests that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game.[30]
One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka that had been created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma, for Kubera, the lord of wealth.[31] It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful Emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara.[32] The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravana's airport.[33]
Ravana belonged to the tribe Raksha, which lived alongside four Hela tribes named Yaksha, Deva, Naga and Gandharva.[34] These early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the Vedda people,[35] an indigenous community living in modern-day Sri Lanka, which numbers approximately 2,500. Irish historian James Emerson Tennent theorised Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish, from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks and other valuables. Early inhabitants of the country spoke the Elu language, which is considered the early form of the modern Sinhala language.[36]
Ancient Sri Lanka[link]
According to the Mah?vamsa, a chronicle written in P?li language, the ancient period of Sri Lanka begins in 543 BC with the landing of Vijaya, a semi-legendary king who arrived in the country with 700 followers from the southwest coast of what is now the Rarh region of West Bengal.[37] He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern day Mannar. Vijaya is the first of the approximately 189 native monarchs of Sri Lanka that the chronicles like Dipavamsa, Mah?vamsa, Chulavamsa, and R?j?valiya describe (see List of Sri Lankan monarchs). Sri Lankan dynastic history spanned a period of 2359 years, from 543 BC to AD 1815, until the land became part of the British Empire.[38]
The Kingdom of Sri Lanka moved to Anuradhapura in 380 BC, during the reign of Pandukabhaya. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital of the country for nearly 1400 years.[39] Ancient Sri Lankans excelled in various constructions such as tanks, dagobas and palaces.[40] The society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BC,[41]bhikkhu Mahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived in Mihintale, carrying the message of Buddhism.[42] His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population.[43] The succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia as well.[44] In 245 BC, bhikkhuni Sangamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightened.[45] It is considered the oldest tree in the world, with a continuous historical record. (Bodhivamsa)[46]
Sri Lanka experienced the first foreign invasion during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India.[43] The next invasion came immediately in 205 BC by a Chola king named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugemunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. He built Ruwanwelisaya, the second stupa in ancient Sri Lanka, and the Lovamahapaya.[47] During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Kingdom of Sri Lanka was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Asian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and Pallava.[48] There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. Kala Wewa and the Avukana Buddha statue were built during the reign of Dhatusena.[49]
Sri Lanka was the first Asian country to have a female ruler; Queen Anula who reigned during 47?42 BC.[50] Sri Lankan monarchs attained some remarkable construction achievements like Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky". It was a constructed during the reign of Kashyapa I. Sigiriya is a rock fortress surrounded by an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. The 5th century palace is also renowned for frescos on the rock the surface.[49] It has been declared by UNESCO as the 8th Wonder of the world.[51][52] Among the other constructions, large reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile, are most notable. Biso Kotuwa, a peculiar construction inside a dam, is a technological marvel based on precise mathematics, allowing water to flow outside the dam keeping the pressure to a minimum.[53] Ancient Sri Lanka was the first country in the world to have established a dedicated hospital, in Mihintale in the 4th century.[54] It was also the leading exporter of cinnamon in the ancient world, and has maintained close ties with European civilizations including the Roman Empire. For example, King Bhatikabhaya (22 BC?AD 7) had sent an embassy to Rome and got down coral for a net to be cast over the Ruwanwelisaya.[55] Bhikkhuni Devas?ra and ten other fully ordained bhikkhunis from Sri Lanka went to China and established the bhikkhuni s?sana there in AD 429.[56]
Medieval Sri Lanka[link]
The medieval period of Sri Lanka begins with the fall of Anuradhapura. In AD 993, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sri Lankan ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of the country.[57] Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in AD 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura.[57] Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.[58] This marked the end of the two great houses of dynasties of ancient Sri Lanka, the Moriya and the Lambakanna. Following a seventeen year long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.[59][60] Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.[61] During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided to three sub-territories, namely Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya.[62]
Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Par?kramab?hu the Great ( AD 1153?1186).[63] This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.[64][65] He built 1470 reservoirs ? the highest number by any ruler in the history, repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini reservoirs.[66] His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra,[67] the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Par?kramab?hu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns ? in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Myanmar) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.[68]
After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In AD 1215, Kalinga Magha, a South Indian with uncertain origins, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa with a 24,000 strong army on 100 large ships from Kalinga.[66] Unlike the previous invaders, he looted, ransacked, and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.[69] His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power. Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayab?hu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom.[70][71] The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king Par?kramab?hu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal.[72] He ruled the North from AD 1450 to 1467.[73] The next three centuries stating from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of kingdoms in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte,[74]Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy.
Early modern Sri Lanka[link]
The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lorenzo de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505.[75] The Portuguese founded a fort at the port city of Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592 Vimaladharmasuriya I moved the kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location more secure against an attack from western invaders.[76] Intermittent warfare continued through the 16th century. In 1619, due to the attacks of Portuguese, independent existence of Jaffna kingdom, came to an end.[77]
During the reign of the Rajasinghe II, Dutch explorers arrived in the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[78] The following Dutch?Portuguese War resulted in Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they captured, violating the treaty. An ethnic group named Burgher people integrated into the Sri Lankan society as a result of Dutch rule.[79] The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.[80] In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic ? the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese ? to Kandy, and built the Temple of the Tooth.[80] Even with intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom was able to survive. A succession crisis emerged in Kandy, upon king Vira Narendrasinha's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India and was childless by them.[80] Eventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita Sarankara, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princess, overlooking the right of "Unambuwe Bandara", Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine.[81] The new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of Nayakkar dynasty, launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.[82]
During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.[83] Two years later, in 1798, Rajadhi Rajasinha, 3rd of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka died of a fever. Following the death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, 18-year-old Konnasami was crowned.[84] The new king, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha faced a British invasion in 1803, but was able to retaliate successfully. By then, the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company, as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. But on 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British, in the second Kandyan War, finally ending Sri Lanka's independence.[84]Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka was exiled to India.[85] The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts of Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine the British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg.[86]
Modern Sri Lanka[link]
Sri Lanka under the British rule[link]
The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833.[87] They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.[87] An Executive Council and a Legislative Council were established, later becoming the foundation of representative legislature in the country. By this time, experiments with coffee plantation were largely successful. Soon it grew to become the primary commodity export of the country. The falling coffee prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[88] These harsh measures antagonized the locals, and another rebellion broke out in 1848.[89] A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within 15 years. The British officials desperately searched for a substitute, and the promising replacement they found was tea. Production of tea in Sri Lanka thrived within the decades to come.
By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class which transcended the divisions of race and caste was emerging as a result of British attempts to nurture a range of professionals for the Ceylon Civil Service and for the legal, educational, and medical professions.[90] The country's new leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. In the meantime, attempts were underway for Buddhist and Hindu revivalism and to react against Christian missionary activities on the island.[91][92] The first two decades in the 20th century are distinguished for the harmony that prevailed among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has not been the case ever since.[93] In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam.[94] It kept pressing the colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But due to its failure to appeal to the masses and the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost its momentum towards the mid 1920s.[95] The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticized by the Tamil political leadership, who realized that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council.[96][97] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50?50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944/45.
Post independence Sri Lanka[link]
The Soulbury constitution ushered the Dominion status for Ceylon, delivering it independence on 4 February 1948.[98] The office of Prime Minister of Ceylon was created in 1947, with D. S. Senanayake as the first prime minister.[99] Prominent Tamil leaders like Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet.[96][100] Although the country gained independence, the British Royal Navy stationed at Trincomalee, remained there until 1956. 1953 hartal, against the withdrawal of the rice ration, resulted in the resignation of the then prime minister, Dudley Senanayake.[101]S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected as the prime minister in 1956. His 3 year rule had a profound impact on the direction of the country. He emerged as the "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture" and promised radical changes in the system.[102] He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although it was partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived their language and culture were threatened.[103][104][105]Federal Party (FP) launched satyagraha against the move, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[106] However the pact was not carried out due to protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.[107] Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.[108]
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of late S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, who took office as prime minister in 1960, faced an attempted coup d'?tat in 1962. During the second term as prime minister, her government instituted socialist economic polices, strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, with the adoption of a new constitution, the country became a republic, repudiating the dominion status and changing its name to Sri Lanka. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north, during 1970s.[109] The policy of standardization by Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrollment, which was in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to gain tertiary education,[110] in turn reducing the number of Tamil students within the Sri Lankan university student populace; acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.[111][112] Assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 marked an important turn of the events.[113][114]
The Government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopular United Front government, towards its final years.[115] Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, together with a powerful executive presidency modelled after France, and a free market economy. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy.[116] From 1983, ethnic tensions blew into on-and-off insurgency against the government by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Following the riots in July 1983, more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fled the island, seeking asylum in other countries.[117] Lapses in foreign policy resulted in neighbouring India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.[118][119][120] In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilize the region by neutralising the LTTE.[121] The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka.[122] As their efforts did not become successful, IPKF was called back in 1990.[123] In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.[105]
Sri Lanka was affected by the devastating 2004 Asian tsunami, which left at least 35,000 people dead.[124] From 1985 to 2006, Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held 4 rounds of peace-talks, none of them helping a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008.[105] In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE, and re-established control of the entire country under the Sri Lankan Government.[125][126] The 26 year war caused 60,000 to 100,000 deaths.[127][128] U.N Secretary General's experts panel report had said that at least 40,000 Tamil civilians could have been killed in the final phases of the Sri Lankan civil war.[129] Following the LTTE's defeat, Tamil National Alliance, the largest political party in Sri Lanka dropped its demand for a separate state, in favour of a federal solution.[130][131] The final stages of the war left some 294,000 people displaced.[132][133] According to the Ministry of Resettlement, most of the displaced persons had been released or returned to their places of origin, leaving only 6,651 in the camps as of December 2011.[134] In May 2010, President Rajapaksa appointed the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) to assess the conflict between the time of the ceasefire agreement in 2002 and the defeat of the LTTE in 2009.[135][136] Sri Lanka, emerging after a 26 year war, has become one of the fastest growing economies of the world.[18][137]
The island of Sri Lanka lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[138] It is positioned in the Indian Ocean, to the southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between latitudes 5? and 10?N, and longitudes 79? and 82?E.[139] Sri Lanka is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait. According to the Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level.[140] It was reportedly passable on foot up to 1480 AD, until cyclones deepened the channel.[141][142]
The island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these is the highest point Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281?ft) above sea level. The climate of Sri Lanka can be described as tropical and warm. Its position endows the country with a warm climate moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture. The mean temperature ranges from about 17 ?C (62.6??F) in the central highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of approximately 33 ?C (91.4??F) in other low-altitude areas. The average yearly temperature ranges from 28 ?C (82.4??F) to nearly 31 ?C (87.8??F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 ?C (57.2??F) to 18 ?C (64.4??F).[143]
Rainfall pattern of the country is influenced by Monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4?in) of rain each month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200?mm (47?in) and 1,900?mm (75?in) of rain annually.[144] The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at 800?mm (31?in) to 1,200?mm (47?in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.[145]
The longest of the 103 rivers in the country is Mahaweli River, covering a distance of 335 kilometres (208?mi).[146] These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls, having a height of 10 meters or more. The highest one is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863?ft).[147] Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585?km long.[148] It claims to an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles. This is approximately 6.7 times the country's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs, shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.[149] Sri Lanka inherits 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons too.[148] Country's mangrove ecosystem which spans over 7,000 hectares, played a vital role in buffering the force in the waves of 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[150] The island is rich with minerals such as Ilmenite, Feldspar, Graphite, Silica, Kaolin, Mica and Thorium.[151][152] Existence of Petroleum in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed and extraction attempts are underway.[153]
Flora and fauna[link]
Lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, Sri Lanka is one of the 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world.[155] Although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest biodiversity per 10,000 square km in Asia.[156] Remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals (see List), are endemic.[157] Sri Lanka has declared 24 wildlife reserves, which are home to a wide range of native species such as Asian elephants, leopards, sloth bears, the unique small loris, a variety of deer, the purple-faced langur, the endangered wild boar, porcupines and anteaters.[158]
Varieties of flowering acacias are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests, are some valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical evergreen forest, with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.[159]
The Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks, and the Wilpattu National Park, the largest national park in Sri Lanka, in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birds, such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four biosphere reserves, Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.[160] Out of these, Sinharaja forest reserve is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive Red-faced Malkoha, Green-billed Coucal and Sri Lanka Blue Magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Out of the 211 woody trees and lianas so far identified within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The Total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs and seedlings has been estimated to be around 240,000 individuals per hectare.
In addition, Sri Lanka is home to over 250 types of resident birds (see List). It has declared several bird sanctuaries including Kumana.[161] During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900?km2 (730?sq?mi) as national parks. However the country's forest cover, which was around 49% in 1920, had been fallen to approximately 24% by 2009.[162][163]
Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in South Asia.[164][165] The Donoughmore Constitution, drafted by the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 enabled general elections with adult universal suffrage (universal adult franchise) in the country.[166] It was the first time a non-caucasian country within the empires of Western Europe was given one man, one vote and the power to control domestic affairs. The first election under the universal adult franchise, held in June 1931, for the Ceylon State Council.[164]Sir D. B. Jayatilaka was elected as the Leader of the House.[167] In 1944, the Soulbury Commission was appointed to draft a new constitution. During this time, struggle for Independence was fought on "constitutionalist" lines under the leadership of D. S. Senanayake.[168] The draft constitution was enacted in the same year and Senanayake was appointed as the Prime Minister from the parliamentary election in 1947. The Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status and Independence to Sri Lanka in 1948.[166]
Current politics in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-leftist and progressivist United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP).[169] Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[170] Out of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935 is the oldest.[171] UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was considered to be the largest single political party until recently.[172] It is the only political group which had a representation in all parliaments since the independence.[172] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, who was the Cabinet minister of Local Administration, before he left the UNP in July 1951.[173] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in 1956 Parliamentary election.[173] Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first elected female head of state.[174]
G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,[175] founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. As an objection to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK) aka Federal Party. It was the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next 2 decades.[176] Federal party advocated a more aggressive stance vis-?-vis the Sinhalese.[177] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, these parties created a common front, the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Tamil National Alliance, formed in October 2001 is the current successor of these Tamil political parties which had undergone much turbulences as Tamil militants' rise to power in late 1970s.[177][178]Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist-Leninist political party, founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as the 3rd force in the current political context.[179] It endorses radical leftist policies, with respect to the traditionalist leftist politics of LSSP and Communist Party.[177] Founded in 1981, Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[180]
Government[link]
Sri Lanka is a democratic, socialist republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system, with a mixture of a presidential system and a parliamentary system.[183] It constitutes a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of Sri Lanka. Most provisions of the Constitution of Sri Lanka can be amended by a two-thirds majority in Parliament of Sri Lanka. However, the amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval at a nation-wide referendum.
The Sri Lankan government has 3 branches:
- Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court ? the highest and final superior court of record,[189] a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. Its highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.[190] The Criminal law is almost entirely based on British law. Basic Civil law relates to the Roman law and Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.[191] Due to ancient customary practices and/or religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai and the Sharia law too are followed on special cases.[192] The President appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the Chief Justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.
Administrative divisions[link]
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into 9 provinces[193] and 25 districts.[194]
- Provinces
Provinces (Sinhala: ????Tamil: ???????) have existed in Sri Lanka since the 19th century. But they didn't have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils following several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the Government of Sri Lanka.[195] The provincial council is an autonomous body and is not under any Ministry. It undertakes activities which had earlier been undertaken by the Central Government Ministries, Departments, Corporations and Statutory Authorities.[195] But importantly, land and police authorities are not given to provincial councils in practice.http://article.wn.com/view/2013/07/31/Sri_Lanka_bats_first_in_final_ODI_vs_South_Africa/
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